3 Chapter 3: The Historical Underpinnings of Social Welfare in the U.S.

Social welfare at the governmental level in the US did not formally start until the 1930s after the Great Depression. Prior to that, the first immigrant settlers to America continued the tradition of the Elizabethan Poor Laws. These British laws established a basic level of governmental responsibility for the worthy poor living within a distinct community while limiting aid to those outside the community or deemed able to work. Worthy poor were considered people who could not be expected to provided for themselves. Children, the elderly and people with physical disabilities were considered worthy of aid. Men of working age, women who had children outside of wedlock and people with substance abuse disorders were declared unworthy and often were subject to harsh punishment. Early social welfare was provided by charitable organizations, predominantly religious institutions. For more on the British poor laws and the theory behind them, view this video. These are the ideals that early settlers brought to America.

The American version of the Poor Laws established local jurisdictions in the original colonies that were responsible for the poor in that locality and enacted taxes for the services provided. While charitable organizations provided most social welfare, each jurisdiction had responsibility for only those worthy poor who could prove residency. This ensured that people could not travel around and seek aid from different places and sources. This form of social welfare was considered to be a last option – only after the individual or family had exhausted all other sources of help and were in crisis. This type of social welfare is considered to be residual. Residual social welfare is provided only when there is no other option available to the individual or family through personal supports or the market economy. Residual welfare is designed to be limited and short-term – encouraging the recipient to become self-sufficient as quickly as possible.

Institutional social welfare, on the other hand, is designed to support the society as a whole. It is enacted to provide services to all, as a natural part of living in a collective. Institutional social welfare is focused on either preventing social problems, such as public health policy, or promoting the general well-being, such as free public education. Institutional social welfare in the US was slower to develop due to a focus on individual solutions rather than governmental action and the desire to focus all governmental action at the lowest possible level – in most cases, the local level.

For a deeper dive on residual and institutional social welfare from an international perspective, read Mishra, 1987.

In several places in this chapter, we have alluded to values, defined as the worth, desirability, or usefulness placed on something.

Our personal values explain what we believe is right and wrong, good and evil, desirable and undesirable. Beliefs are the opinions or convictions we hold that reflect our values. For example, I value children. I believe that all children, regardless of who their parents are or where they were born, should have the right to all the supports and services they need to be healthy and happy. Our early values and beliefs are influenced by our families of origin, our communities and our faith traditions. As we gain more life experience, our values and beliefs can and often adapt to reflect our changing understanding of the world around us. Our values and beliefs can also change as a result of major changes in society. An example of this on a societal level is acceptance of same sex marriage. According to the Pew Research Center, 60 percent of Americans opposed same sex marriage in 2004 (2019). By 2019, 61 percent of Americans support marriage rights for same sex couples.

Understanding societal values and beliefs is particularly important when we are seeking to understand the historical development of social welfare policy. It is those values and beliefs, some which are strongly entrenched in our understanding of what America is and who is an American, that drive the policy response, or lack of response, to social problems. There are a couple key terms we will explore before looking more closely at commonly held American values.

American Exceptionalism is the belief that the values, practices and principles that define the American way of life are superior to any other country. Borstelmann (2020) described it this way:

“The ultimate logic of American exceptionalism, on most prominent display during the Cold War, held that U.S. history and American institutions had facilitated the full liberation of the human spirit and the fulfillment of the highest human aspirations. This was, it seemed to many of its people, the nation that had finally embodied liberty and happiness for its residents. American democratic culture was thus seen as truly “natural,” in common American thinking, giving citizens self- rule, individual freedom, and a market economy that sold them what they wanted and needed” (pg. 2).

In 1776, with the Declaration of Independence, and then in 1787, in the US Constitution, the forefathers of the country outlined the framework of a democratic (run by the people), capitalist (profit based and privately run market sector) country. These documents also reflect the values and beliefs of the men who wrote them in relation to the world as they understood it at the time. Since then, even though the world and our country have changed greatly, we see the vestiges of those values and beliefs in all of our responses to social problems.

The American way of life and the American Dream are reflective of this idea that democracy and capitalism are the best. We are the “land of opportunity” and anyone that works hard can achieve greatness. Historically and currently, we see these values deeply embedded in our policy.

Section 3.1 Personal values

Personal values are shaped by our own experiences and reflect our beliefs. These can vary greatly from person to person, influenced by our backgrounds, families, and often overlap with religious beliefs. Our personal beliefs and values help us to understand the world as we encounter it.

We can see challenges to our personal beliefs when we are exposed to populations or situations that don’t align with what we previously experienced. This can occur when someone’s understanding of a culture or population is only based on anecdotal evidence through other’s stories or the media and then meets someone from that culture or population. In a class not too long ago, a student was sharing their experience of homelessness. Other students in the class were shocked to learn that someone could be a college student with a child and still be homeless. It challenged their beliefs about who could be homeless and what causes it – in this case, interpersonal violence and a lack of a family shelter in their community.

As social workers, our personal values can sometimes be in conflict with our professional values. Social Workers are guided by the Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers (2022). This Code outlines six main values:

• • Service.
  • Social justice.
  • Dignity and worth of the person.
  • Importance of human relationships.
  • Integrity.
  • Competence

According to the Code, Social Workers

“recognize and value the importance of human relationships, and work to strengthen these relationships in order to enhance the well-being of individuals and communities” (NASW, 2022). However, certain faith traditions teach that same sex unions are not acceptable. A professional Social Worker who is a member of that particular faith may be called to work with a family that is headed by a married same sex couple. This could cause a personal ethical conflict for that worker. The expectation is that professional social workers will be able to practice our professional values while working in that capacity.”

Section 3.2 Religious values

One of the founding tenets of America is the separation of church and state. This was established in the US Constitution, stemming from the European tradition of a state religion. Many of the original pilgrims left England in search of religious freedom. Although we do not have a state religion and people are largely free to practice – or to not practice – any religion they choose, America has been largely developed as a Christian nation. Interpretations of Biblical teachings have impacted policy from the early days of the nation regarding slavery and abolition, women’s suffrage and Prohibition, and continue to impact policy regarding same sex marriage, reproductive freedom and rights for transgendered and non-binary individuals.

Religious involvement in the provision of social welfare services started at the beginning of the country. Early public welfare in the US was provided by charitable organizations in the country and developed on religious ideals of charity and benevolence. All faith traditions call for followers to provide assistance to those in need and this was practiced in the US from the earliest days by religious organizations. The goals of these organizations were to promote moral character and help the less fortunate. This tradition continues today. In 2023, there was $557.16 billion in charitable giving, according to the Lilly Family School of Philanthropy (2024). Religious organizations such as the Catholic Charities US, Lutheran Services in America and the Jewish Funders Network provide social services and funding, filling in large holes in the safety net for vulnerable populations.

2023 Charitable Giving by Source

Figure 3.1:  2023 Charitable Giving by Source

Section 3.3 Social Values

Social values are informed by personal and religious values but are more reflective of the values that drive us as a country. There are two main themes that drive the response to social problems and the development of social policy:

• • Individualism: Hard work and self-sufficiency
  • Collectivism: Social responsibility and citizenship

Individualism, or individual responsibility is one of the hallmarks of American Exceptionalism and is reflected in all aspects of our culture. Prigmore & Atherton (1986) wrote that American social values tend to focus on achievement and success; activity and work; efficiency; and practicality and progress. These values are in line with the mindset of early Americans – those people who left Europe in search of a new world. This also reflects the Protestant Work Ethic, an sociological concept that came from the teachings of Martin Luther in the 1500s. He held that godliness was measured through hard work and restraint. America soon became known as the land of opportunity and anyone could “pull themselves up by their bootstraps” and achieve the American Dream. This value is still widely held today and we see this reflected in the desire for as little government involvement in our day to day lives as possible and policy that encourages individuals to solve their own problems through work.

Collectivism, or social responsibility, refers to communal or societal response to ensure the well-being of all. This value is reflected when we come together as communities or a nation to support victims of natural disasters, those under military attacks or collective achievements by groups. Social responsibility is providing supports to those who can never achieve self-sufficiency or resources to citizens regardless of income or social status. The Social Security Act is an example of policy driven by the value of social responsibility. This act ensures that there is public welfare and social insurance for all people, paid from through income and payroll taxes by most people. Another example of collectivism was the Covid 19 Pandemic mask mandates – everyone had to wear masks to ensure that those most at-risk were protected on some level.

We see these two social values in competing beliefs that underlie our social welfare system (Segal, 2020):

• • Undeserving v deserving
  • Individual responsibility v social responsibility
  • Individual change v social change
  • Self-sufficiency v social support
  • Entitlement v handout
  • Aid to those we know v aid to strangers
  • Religious and faith based practice v separation of church and state
  • Crisis response v prevention
  • Sympathy v empathy
  • Trust v suspicious
  • Rationality v emotions

We will be able to identify the competing values underpinning the social problems identified in America and then the values that are represented in social welfare policy designed to address those problems. For example, consider the Covid 19 Pandemic again. Individual responsibility v social responsibility and crisis response v prevention were two examples of the competing values we saw expressed in households, cities, states and across the nation. In some states, we saw social responsibility as the primary value. Governors in these states issued broad closures, curfews and mask mandates under the assumption that we all had a responsibility to stay isolated to protect the most vulnerable and our health care and first responder systems. In other states, the responsibility was largely left to individual communities and families to take precautions if they deemed it necessary.

We could also see the difference between a crisis response and prevention when we analyze where resources and policies focused – on dealing with those already impacted or seeking to prevent further harm. Widespread closures and shutdowns were a crisis response. Without taking much time to examine the impact, many governments at all levels ordered shutdowns of public facilities including daycares, schools, and government services. As we are now discovering, these quick actions may have prevented more fatalities but have long-term ramifications for all of us.

Policies such as vaccine mandates, mask mandates and contact tracing focus on prevention – trying to prevent serious illness and reduce the impact of further exposure. It is not always possible to start from a prevention strategy in the face of an emergency.

We will continue to explore these values as we examine the historical response to social problems in the US.

References

Borstelmann, T. (2020). Just like us: the American struggle to understand foreigners.  Columbia University Press.

National Association of Social Workers. (2022). NASW code of ethics.  https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English.

Lilly School of Philanthropy. (2024, June 25). Giving USA: U.S. charitable giving totaled $557.16 billion in 2023. https://philanthropy.indianapolis.iu.edu/news-events/news/_news/2024/giving-usa-us-charitable-giving-totaled-557.16-billion-in-2023.html.

Pew Research Center. (2019, May 14). Changing attitudes on same sex marriage. [Fact sheet]. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/fact-sheet/changing-attitudes-on-gay-marriage/.

Segal, E. A. (2020). Empowerment Series: Social Welfare Policy and Social Programs, 4th Ed. Cengage.

U.S. Small Business Administration. (2021, Nov. 4). the U.S. Small Business Administration is delivering support to America’s small businesses, helping them recover from the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://www.sba.gov/article/2021/nov/24/fact-sheet-us-small-business-administration-delivering-support-americas-small-businesses-helping.