Platinum Rule: Treat others the way they want to be treated.

Life is full of decisions. From small ones like what shoes you’re going to wear to go on a walk to large ones like potentially moving to a different state to get a job. What makes things a bit more complicated about decision making is that so many of the good, bad, and neutral consequences of the decisions you are asked to make are not isolated to just you. Rather, they’re wrapped up in interdependent, or, multiply connected, relationships to other people, ideas about yourself, and frameworks for how society functions. For instance, if you decide to go on a walk and wear flip flops but it’s snowing out your feet are going to get really, really cold. Now, at first this seemingly impacts just you and your feet. However, let’s say you rent an apartment with your friends. And your decision to wear flip flops for a walk in the snow means your feet hurt, impacting your ability to work your job at Fazoli’s. You now have to take two weeks off of work. This two week break means you don’t have enough rent money. Not being able to pay your share of rent means you and your roommates are at risk of being evicted. So, at first a personal decision can feel and be isolated. Sometimes, however, the decisions you make have broader consequences than originally imagined.

Many people make decisions based on their personal circumstances, histories, and views of the world. Infused into decision making processes are ethics. Ethics is concerned with evaluation of human actions as right and wrong. Understanding ethics involves understanding and comparing theories, or a way of thinking, that describe and justify right and wrong actions and ethical claims. As you just read, an individual’s actions do not occur in isolation but within a social context. Specifically, no individual is outside of a relationship with society. So, there is a fuzzy boundary between ethics and social and political codes of conduct. Thinking about social and political codes of conduct means exploring the values related to groups of individuals, from small communities to larger nations. What makes a society good, what makes a government legitimate, what is the relationship between the individual and society/government? A lot of these questions include evaluating fairness, justice, human rights, and the responsibilities of government that have no easy answers. It is about arguments; it is about thinking and reasoning; it is about human conduct and how humans do or do not want to show up to support one another.

Because people have many different reasons for attending college, college is a time where you will be introduced to ideas, concepts, ways of thinking, and ways of being that may or may not differ from what you experienced prior to attending college. And so, a large part of the college experience is not just going to class to learn important skills for your chosen career, but also figuring out your ethical compass. While ethics never promises to provide an individual with the absolute truth about moral matters, it can help you evaluate ethical ideas by comparing them with others to see if they align. Philosophical thinking, what you’re doing in this chapter in relation to ethics, can help you uncover and discover contradictions and tensions in and among your ideas. Pinpointing contradictions and tensions in and among your ideas, helps you think strategically, problem solve, and be better informed.

What is Ethics?

Ethics, or moral philosophy, is the branch of philosophy concerned with the evaluation of human actions. Even though you may not be a philosophy major, it’s important to understand that knowing about ethics – the study of morality, right and wrong – impacts you and your future careers. This branch of philosophy is concerned not only with theories for characterizing right and wrong actions but also with understanding and analyzing the meaning of and justification for ethical claims. That is, just because you can, does it mean you should?

Ethics is not the same as opinions, feelings, or even conscience. It need not be religious, nor is it the same as following the law. Contrary to popular belief, ethics is not synonymous with adhering to culturally accepted norms, familial upbringing, customs, or traditions. However, ethics is not intrinsically opposed to these other possible sources of guidance in moral matters.

If the primary aim of ethics is to provide guidance in moral matters, the principal method of ethics is reason. In ethics, one examines ethical claims, beliefs, judgments, and practices through the lens of reason. Ideally, ethics encourages people to subscribe to and endorse ideas and practices that can be supported with “good” reasons.

“Good” reasons hinge on ideas that are true or, at the very least, make sense and align with the other beliefs society regards as acceptable. On the other hand, reasons considered “less than good” include ideas that are false, unacceptable, unreasonable to believe, or in conflict with the other beliefs society holds as true or, at least, “acceptable.”

Most people see ourselves as moral agents, and furthermore, we often evaluate the behavior of others, especially when we regard behavior as particularly good or bad. It is important to keep in mind, though, that this discussion of the philosophical study of ethics does not advocate particular theories or standards; it seeks to understand the meaning of ethical concepts and the ethical theories that help define right and wrong. One’s actions and behavior, after all, do not occur in isolation but rather in the context of society.

How does ethics impact me?

What does it mean to be a member of a community, to “belong” to the society in which you live? In response to such questions, philosophers propose theories about what ought to be the case; in contrast, social scientists – like anthropologists, sociologists, historians, psychologists and others – describe what is the case. Ethics explores what makes up moral actions for individuals and it is integral to how an individual relates to the community (the larger social group) to which they belong. A conception of “the good” is central to understanding what makes a society just, or fair, for its members.

One way people who study ethics view the relationship of the individual to society is the social contract theory. Social contract theory is the view that political structure and legitimacy of the state stem from explicit or implicit agreement by individuals to surrender specified rights in exchange for the stability of social order and/or for the protection of government. Social contract theory is “theoretical.” The “idea” of a contract is offered as an explanation or justification of a relationship between the individual and the larger society or government. Social contract theories demonstrate why members of a society would rationally find it in their best interests to comply with and uphold the principles and regulations of their society. A social contract theory attempts to justify a particular political system (a currently existing one or an ideal one) by showing why members of society would consent to it. Members of society freely relinquish something they value (for example, aspects of their freedom) in exchange for something else they also value (for example, a sense of security.)

Human reason is a key element in social contract theories. First, the underlying view of human nature includes that we are rational beings and therefore can understand why and how regulations and principles make life better. Further, given that humans are rational, the contract itself needs to express what a rational person would agree to.

Social contract theories put forth by philosophers typically refer to contracts between a nation and its citizens. Consent to such contracts is meant to occur tacitly, or implicitly, by virtue of being a citizen of the state. (An exception to this might be the case of an immigrant becoming a naturalized citizen, and here, there would be an actual oath of compliance, or consent.) The social principles and political structure of a society that are established by its members’ consent come to represent that society’s standard for what is good, or just.

Ethical Frameworks for Decision Making

If you are beginning to suspect that there is no type of activity that doesn’t have some sort of ethical analysis, then you’re right. This is because ethics is a discipline that seeks to answer what is at once a simple, yet extremely difficult, question: What should I (or we) do? One might ask instead, “How should we live?” or, “What is a good life?” However, each of these questions is connected to the others and they all can be thought of as asking much the same kind of thing.

It is tempting to rephrase the question “What should I do?” as “What can I do?” “What do I want to do?” or “What do other people want me to do?” If you do this, you are confusing an ought with an is.[1] You are taking a normative question—in other words, a question that concerns what ought to be the case or what ought to be done—and trying to replace it with a descriptive question about some fact of the matter. In the case of the rephrased questions above, what is within my capacity, what I desire, or what other people desire, respectively.

Changing the normative question from what I or we or you (or someone else) should do to a descriptive question is, in effect, an effort to leave the ethical analysis up to someone else. The idea that this is a way of avoiding ethics is, however, an illusion. Most decision-making has a moral dimension. Part of being a mature, rational individual in a society is being accountable for one’s decisions and actions. Even if we don’t make the effort to consider whether our actions are right or wrong, others will. To make decisions there are different perspectives, or, lenses, that you can use to evaluate the situation. For centuries, philosophers in different settings and different times have been developing theories of ethics. The following six lenses are condensed versions of different theories throughout the worlds developed by the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University:

The Rights Lens

Some suggest that the ethical action is the one that best protects and respects the moral rights of those affected. This approach starts from the belief that humans have a dignity based on their human nature per se or on their ability to freely choose what they do with their lives. On the basis of such dignity, they have a right to be treated as ends in themselves and not merely as means to other ends. The list of moral rights—including the rights to make one’s own choices about what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured, to a degree of privacy, and so on—is widely debated; some argue that non-humans have rights, too. Rights are also often understood as implying duties—in particular, the duty to respect others’ rights and dignity.

The Justice Lens

Justice is the idea that each person should be given their due, and what people are due is often interpreted as fair or equal treatment. Equal treatment implies that people should be treated as equals according to some defensible standard such as merit or need, but not necessarily that everyone should be treated in the exact same way in every respect. There are different types of justice that address what people are due in various contexts. These include social justice (structuring the basic institutions of society), distributive justice (distributing benefits and burdens), corrective justice (repairing past injustices), retributive justice (determining how to appropriately punish wrongdoers), and restorative or transformational justice (restoring relationships or transforming social structures as an alternative to criminal punishment).

The Utilitarian Lens

Some ethicists begin by asking, “How will this action impact everyone affected?”—emphasizing the consequences of our actions. Utilitarianism, a results-based approach, says that the ethical action is the one that produces the greatest balance of good over harm for as many stakeholders as possible. It requires an accurate determination of the likelihood of a particular result and its impact. For example, the ethical corporate action, then, is the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are affected—customers, employees, shareholders, the community, and the environment. Cost/benefit analysis is another consequentialist approach.

The Common Good Lens

According to the common good approach, life in community is a good in itself and our actions should contribute to that life. This approach suggests that the interlocking relationships of society are the basis of ethical reasoning and that respect and compassion for all others—especially the vulnerable—are requirements of such reasoning. This approach also calls attention to the common conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone—such as clean air and water, a system of laws, effective police and fire departments, health care, a public educational system, or even public recreational areas. Unlike the utilitarian lens, which sums up and aggregates goods for every individual, the common good lens highlights mutual concern for the shared interests of all members of a community.

The Virtue Lens

A very ancient approach to ethics argues that ethical actions ought to be consistent with certain ideal virtues that provide for the full development of our humanity. These virtues are dispositions and habits that enable us to act according to the highest potential of our character and on behalf of values like truth and beauty. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. Virtue ethics asks of any action, “What kind of person will I become if I do this?” or “Is this action consistent with my acting at my best?”

The Care Ethics Lens

Care ethics is rooted in relationships and in the need to listen and respond to individuals in their specific circumstances, rather than merely following rules or calculating utility. It privileges the flourishing of embodied individuals in their relationships and values interdependence, not just independence. It relies on empathy to gain a deep appreciation of the interest, feelings, and viewpoints of each stakeholder, employing care, kindness, compassion, generosity, and a concern for others to resolve ethical conflicts. Care ethics holds that options for resolution must account for the relationships, concerns, and feelings of all stakeholders. Focusing on connecting intimate interpersonal duties to societal duties, an ethics of care might counsel, for example, a more holistic approach to public health policy that considers food security, transportation access, fair wages, housing support, and environmental protection alongside physical health.

A Framework for Ethical Decision Making

The following framework was also designed by the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University. They note, “making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to ethical issues and a practiced method for exploring the ethical aspects of a decision and weighing the considerations that should impact our choice of a course of action. Having a method for ethical decision-making is essential. When practiced regularly, the method becomes so familiar that we work through it automatically without consulting the specific steps” (Velasquez et al 2021).

Identify the Ethical Issue

• Could this decision or situation be damaging to someone or to some group, or unevenly beneficial to people? Does this decision involve a choice between a good and bad alternative, or perhaps between two “goods” or between two “bads”?
• Is this issue about more than solely what is legal or what is most efficient? If so, how?

Get the Facts

• What are the relevant facts of the case? What facts are not known? Can I learn more about the situation? Do I know enough to make a decision?
• What individuals and groups have an important stake in the outcome? Are the concerns of some of those individuals or groups more important? Why?
• What are the options for acting? Have all the relevant persons and groups been consulted? Have I identified creative options?

Evaluate Alternative Actions

Evaluate the options by asking the following questions:

• Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake? (The Rights Lens)
• Which option treats people fairly, giving them each what they are due? (The Justice Lens)
• Which option will produce the most good and do the least harm for as many stakeholders as possible? (The Utilitarian Lens)
• Which option best serves the community as a whole, not just some members? (The Common Good Lens)
• Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to be? (The Virtue Lens)
• Which option appropriately takes into account the relationships, concerns, and feelings of all stakeholders? (The Care Ethics Lens)

Choose an Option for Action and Test It

• After an evaluation using all of these lenses, which option best addresses the situation?
• If I told someone I respect (or a public audience) which option I have chosen, what would they say?
• How can my decision be implemented with the greatest care and attention to the concerns of all stakeholders?

Implement Your Decision and Reflect on the Outcome

• How did my decision turn out, and what have I learned from this specific situation? What (if any) follow-up actions should I take?

How do I know if I’m right or wrong?

Several potential outcomes emerge when important ethical questions are asked. They’re not always resulting in a clear answer. These questions can cause people to come to certain conclusions that may be unnerving. Additionally, the answers that people often struggle with produce actions and outcomes that present obstacles to moving along with better ethical thinking and problem-solving.

The issue of blame:

At the root of blame is the shared realization that change is needed. Change is often scary and threatening. As individuals think about ethical issues, they are often confronted by their conscience or reason, prompting them to feel troubled by their thoughts or behaviors. When integrated with the need to enact some form of change, discomfort can cause people to feel unmotivated or agitated. It is probably safe to say that most humans do not like change, and this factor alone can cause uncomfortable situations or outcomes, but when we add the topic of moral assessment, there is added pressure and stress.

The issue of obligation or duty:

Ethical issues naturally imply that the change required might dictate a strong sense of obligation that may cause people not to think and act unfairly. Think of a person who has a renewed view of an issue or problem and throws themselves completely into that new approach without realizing that that renewed perspective may not solve ethical issues. The complexities of obligation can create a crisis as people, in their new understanding, might be torn between loyalties to multiple viewpoints or viewpoints—thus causing even more potential dismay.

The issue of the emotional investment:

Ethical issues often carry with them inherent strong viewpoints and feelings that can surface and may cause individuals to avoid an accurate understanding of the outcomes present. This emotional investment may lead to false admiration for those involved in the decision or leaders who enact what is perceived to be the better moral decision or process. This can lead to an inaccurate result or view of the situation.

The ethical dilemma of not knowing the result that an ethical decision might produce:

How does one truly know that they are correct, or what we have come to think is the proper outcome will indeed yield that result? The prospect of this can be frightening for many people. The more we know how people react in circumstances linked to ethical tensions and outcomes, the better we identify these tendencies in ourselves and others and work to allay those fears. This is perhaps one of the most important factors to consider and why an ethics-based education is essential.

Ethics and Civic and Global Engagement

If ethics is about trying to understand what consists of right and wrong at individual and societal levels and figuring out the actions to move through the decision making process, it is important to be plugged in to what’s going on in local, community, national, and international areas. That is, you have the opportunity to use your perspective, experiences, and problem solving skills to suggest different ways for governments, organizations, and other individuals to engage with ethical dilemmas. Sometimes those ethical dilemmas are about putting others’ needs and wants over your own self interest. Think back to the flip flops and snow storm decision where your decision impacts you and your roommates’ ability to pay rent. By not thinking about the full consequences of wearing flip flops in a snowstorm, you’ve impacted other people’s ability to thrive.

So, one way to connect ethics and decision making to real life situations is through civic engagement. Many people think civic engagement just equates to voting. Civic engagement is so much more than that. It is about taking action to shape the present and future through being interested in the well-being of yourself, the local community, and the nation. Civic engagement is not just about the way you think about yourself in relation to others. It is also about getting involved through volunteering, advocacy, and/or community projects. Specifically, civic engagement is about social responsibility through caring for others, fairness, civility, teamwork, and figuring out what’s right for the community.

Getting civically engaged improves young people’s resilience and well-being, increases school engagement and success, helps with stress management, and promotes a sense of connectedness. All of these benefits aid in your development as a college student and as a future member of the workforce. Civic engagement promotes communication and problem solving skills. It develops practical experience through collaborative projects and generates a network of people to support you throughout your personal and professional development.

Just like the individual does not exist outside of society, one society, or put differently, nation, does not exist outside their relationship to other nations. Therefore, getting civically engaged can also prepare you for the globalized world in which we live. With the advancement of technology, people more than ever have quicker access to information and products that come from all parts of the world. Moreover, many businesses are global. For example, Apple products are designed in California but are made in China or there are Disney parks in Florida, Japan, France, and Hong Kong. And so, being aware of the different ways you as an individual are impacted by happenings all around the world assists you in your ability to thrive in your day to day.

For instance, one day at college you may encounter a perspective or an experience that differs from yours. Encountering differing perspectives can be difficult, especially when they directly challenge your own beliefs and values. However, it’s important not to become defensive when you are presented with different opinions. Being open to different perspectives not only makes everyone feel heard and understood, but also helps to broaden your worldview and makes you think outside the box. Being able to think outside the box allows you to connect new ideas and experiences that can help you in your chosen career field. You can see gaps in market research or design a new product or empathize with a patient, contributing to your value as a member of the workforce.

EKU Resources to get involved

Bobby Verdugo & Yoli Ríos Bilingual Peer Mentor and Tutoring Center aka “El Centro” (Library 106)

El Centro offers bilingual tutoring and mentoring for students interested in multilingual and multicultural community building and scholarship. Tutoring is offered in a variety of languages including Spanish, German, Japanese, etc. Additionally, El Centro also offers tutoring in subject areas such as social work, public health, sciences, anthropology, sociology, etc. El Centro provides a space to apply the skills learned in language and culture classes in real-world settings through volunteering or service-learning community engagement.

El Centro also offers mentoring services where students meet once a week with a peer mentor. Each student is assigned a mentor based on major, academic, or personal needs. Within each mentoring session, students can receive help with navigating college, class advising, schedule building, networking, interview skills, email best practices, applications, essays, resumes, cover letters, scholarships, etc.

Center for Inclusive Excellence and Global Engagement (Powell Ground Floor)

The Center for Inclusive Excellence and Global Engagement (CIEGE) is a student-centered campus hub in the lower level of the Powell Student Center.

Through programming, mentorship, and co-curricular engagement, the CIEGE works to celebrate, support, and provide a sense of belonging for students at Eastern Kentucky University. CIEGE imagines and supports a campus environment where students will be inclusive thinkers that are confident, responsible, global minded with a strong sense of belonging from admission to graduation and beyond.

Office of Military and Veterans Affairs (Powell Middle Floor)

The Office of Military and Veterans Affairs (OMVA) offers a variety of services and opportunities for students who have served in the United States Military, including targeted tuition rates, priority registration, adventure programming, and a textbook lending program. OMVA also houses a VA certifying official who assists with the completion of important paperwork each semester. This office also facilitates a number of opportunities for vets to connect with fellow vets through peer-to-peer mentoring and tutoring, adventure programming, and special workshops designed to meet the needs of our vets. The staff also serves as advocates for our valued service members and their families.

Study Abroad (Crabbe Library 225)

If you are interested in studying abroad, you can contact our office to request additional information about studying abroad or to set up an advising appointment. We also offer a general information sessions during the fall and spring semesters on Fridays at 3 p.m. in Crabbe Library, Room 225.

EKU Registered Student Organizations

Find Registered Student Organizations who are involved in community service here: Engage

Summary

• Ethics is concerned with evaluation of human actions as right and wrong.
• Social contract theory is the view that political structure and legitimacy of the state stem from explicit or implicit agreement by individuals to surrender specified rights in exchange for the stability of social order and/or for the protection of government.
• Part of being a mature, rational individual in a society is being accountable for one’s decisions and actions.
• Having a method for ethical decision-making is essential.
• Several potential outcomes emerge when important ethical questions are asked. They’re not always resulting in a clear answer.
• Specifically, civic engagement is about social responsibility through caring for others, fairness, civility, teamwork, and figuring out what’s right for the community.

Resources, Licenses, and Attributions:

Chapter 2–Morality and Decision Making Copyright © 2018 by Christopher Brooks is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Ethics in Law Enforcement Copyright © 2015 by Steve McCartney and Rick Parent is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Introducing Ethics Copyright © by John Hernandez. All Rights Reserved.

Introduction to Philosophy Copyright © 2024 by Kathy Eldred is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Liberated Learners Copyright © 2022 by Terry Greene et al. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Markkula Center for Applied Ethics. (2021, November 8). A Framework for Ethical Decision Making. Santa Clara University. https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/a-framework-for-ethical-decision-making/

“Civic Engagement for Students.” 2025. Greater Good in Education. March 11, 2025. https://ggie.berkeley.edu/student-well-being/civic-engagement-for-students/#tab__2.

“Learning Framework.” n.d. College Civic Learning. https://www.collegeciviclearning.org/learning-framework.